Modern culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Modern culture - Essay Example Sennet (1999, p. 146) describes the flexible capitalism as more personal rather than general. The modern economy has resulted into a new form of capitalism in which the business organization only cares about the strategic direction to take. Sennet (1999, p.145-146) describes such organizations as having powers to let go. The new capitalism is a sociological danger to the employees of the different companies of the world. It has not only made modern work illegible and modern employees ‘precarious workers’ but also resulted into flexibility that has destroyed the societal foundations of the different communities of the world. The modern economy therefore has everything to do with the troubles and difficulties faced by the different employees in the different work places today. The American workers have to therefore match the computers in terms of efficiency, speed, accuracy and even productivity or else they will all be laid off in future. Sennett (1999, p. 74-75) argues that the introduction of computers and computer integrated systems in the different machines has highly simplified and reduced the tasks of the employees. The workers no longer toil to get things done; everything gets done by just ‘a press of a button’ (Broekens, 2009, p. 94-103). As much as it is an advantage to the employees, it is a great problem. Employees have found a way of evading the hard tasks (Sennett, 1999, p. 72). They eventually end up staying for quite a long time without performing certain tasks and slowly by slowly their skills deplete. What happens when the machines break down or experience malfunctions? Sennett (1999, 72-73) articulates a similar scenario when the dough-kneading machine broke down in the bakery firm. The production activities came to a stand-still since the workers hundred percent depended on the machine make dough. The workers never even possessed the simple engineering skills of repairing the machine ( Sennett, 1999, p. 73). Redundancy and

Compare and Contrast Augustine(Political Writing) and Aquinas (The Essay

Compare and Contrast Augustine(Political Writing) and Aquinas (The Political Ideas Of ST. Thomas Aquinas) - Essay Example While some thinkers have argued for theological positions such as Christian communism, others propose that Christians should have limited participation in politics. Saint Augustine and Thomas Aquinas’ works attempt to provide a harmonious relationship between politics and Christianity. Augustine and Aquinas thoughts on politics are similar in terms of their theological positions, and differ in terms of Augustine’s theological outlook and Aquinas’s rational position on matters. Augustine, as a classical theologian, had notable works that he produced on politics. This occurred in spite of his firm grounding on religion. Augustine’s work had remained as classical in defining religion’s relationship with the society. Augustine discusses dual citizenship in terms of heaven and earth. He recognizes that human beings are bound to the functioning of the earthly state and the heavenly kingdom. Augustine allegorically refers to cities, the earthly city and th e city of God. The earthly city belongs to the class of individuals who are damned. According to Augustine, such individuals do not possess God’s blessings (Saint Augustine 5). On the other hand, the people in the City of God have God’s blessings. The City of God surpasses earthly institutions such as the state. On the other hand, Thomas Aquinas is a theologian who embarked on a study of the church within an intellectual frame. This explains why the papacy recommended Aquinas’s texts as preliminary in attaining ordainments. This suggests that these two scholars shared a similarity in articulating an objective view of the church. In turn, they had designed a philosophical outlook on spiritual matters. It is essential to highlight that Augustine and Aquinas shared similar convictions about wars. The scholars agree that war can be a just affair as long as it builds on certain premises. According to Aquinas, war is necessary as a means of defense. In addition, war i s vital in the event of ensuring long-term peace. Aquinas laid out Augustine’s principles in justifying given wars. To begin with, there has to be considerable possibilities of winning a given war. In addition, a strong central authority should be responsible for waging such a war. The third premise stated that peace was to be the central motive in pursuing a war. Similarly, Augustine had proposed pacifism as a Christian way of living. This means that Christians should oppose war and violence as a means of initiating conflict resolution. Augustine, however, asserted that peacefulness in the case of a serious wrong, which only violence could stop, is a sin Saint (Augustine 29). Augustine states that defense of the self and others could be necessary in the case of an attack. A legitimate authority, however, has to approve such a defense. In as much as Augustine did not explicitly state the components of a just war, he, in an indirect sense, coined the term in The City of God wo rk. In this sense, it was sometimes necessary to have a war that helped preserve peace in the long-term. All the same, Augustine insisted that war should not be preemptive. This is a functional outlook on war that Aquinas uses to lay out the components of a just war. Both Aquinas and Augustine believe that the state is instrumental in safeguarding a common interest. Augustine discusses this concept in the scope of a political community. Aquinas discusses the state’s purpose in terms of justice. According to Augustine, both the state and the

The Pre-Socratic Tradition and Socratic Philosophy Essay Example for Free

The Pre-Socratic Tradition and Socratic Philosophy Essay Socrates was one of the most relevant figures in philosophy. His influence in this field of discipline was so extensive that every philosopher who came after him followed in his footsteps. Though the history of philosophy considers Socrates as a central figure, there were lesser known but equally important philosophers who came before him. These individuals are known as Pre-Socratic philosophers. Now the philosophy before the time of Socrates and the philosophy that Socrates influenced shared similarities and differences. This essay seeks to discuss what makes these philosophies alike and what sets them apart. What was the pre-Socratic tradition all about? What was its subject matter? To properly describe the pre-Socratic tradition, there are several themes to consider. First, this tradition deviates from mythology and religion (Soccio 62). During the Greek civilization, the knowledge of the people was founded on either mythology or religion. The answers to their inquiries were provided for them by the stories of gods and goddesses. Pre-Socratic tradition relies on neither mythology nor religion. Second, its main preoccupations are nature and the world (Soccio 63-64). The thinkers before the time of Socrates were not satisfied with what was already established about how nature was or how the world worked. Instead, they posed their own questions on the workings of nature and the universe. Third, the pre-Socratic tradition used reason in their explanations behind the ways of nature and the world (Soccio 64). Prior to the emergence of these thinkers, the only explanations available were those which were mythological or religious in nature. As was earlier stated, the pre-Socratic tradition deviated from mythology and religion. This deviation is due to the preference for rational investigation. The pre-Socratic thinkers attempted to verify their views with reason (Soccio 64). These three themes define what the pre-Socratic tradition was about. There were many thinkers who were part of the pre-Socratic tradition. Three of these thinkers were Thales, Heraclitus and Anaxagoras (Soccio 64). All three pre-Socratics were preoccupied with discovering the ways of the world with the use of reason rather than mythology and religion. Thales was the first significant pre-Socratic thinker in history. He upheld the belief that water was the element behind all things. For Thales, every single thing in the world was created with water. He simplified the complex workings of the world into a single substance—water (Soccio 65). The conclusion that Thales had arrived at was not based on religious speculation or mythological presumptions. Instead, he created a rational explanation for what he observed in nature (Soccio 65). Just like Thales, Heraclitus also inquired about the world and the element which kept it together. If Thales believed it was water, Heraclitus thought it was â€Å"Logos† (Soccio 67). â€Å"Logos† is not actually an element per se; it was more of a principle. The word â€Å"Logos† itself has several meanings, but Heraclitus affirmed that it is the law which maintains everything and is contained in everything (Soccio 68). The Heraclitean â€Å"Logos† is the one responsible for the world order (Soccio 68). Lastly, Anaxagoras continues the tradition of the two aforementioned thinkers by proceeding with the inquiry about the cosmos. If Heraclitus believed that it was ‘Logos† which dictated the order of the world, for Anaxagoras it was â€Å"Nous† (Soccio 73). â€Å"Nous† is not an element, principle or process. It is defined as the Mind which sets the pattern of the universe. This â€Å"Nous† influences the things of the world without being contained in them (Soccio 73). The pre-Socratic tradition is different from Socratic philosophy. It is through the differences between the two in which Socratic philosophy can be defined. The pre-Socratics were interested on cosmology—the causes behind the workings of the world (Soccio 63). They investigated on nature and the world. Meanwhile, Socratic philosophy is not limited to cosmology. Socrates himself did not write anything, and his teachings were only reflected through the works of other thinkers (King 23). One of those thinkers, and the most influential Socratic philosopher, was Plato. Socratic philosophy is interested in a wide range of philosophical disciplines, which include epistemology, ethics and metaphysics (King 24). The metaphysical influence of Socrates is evident in Plato’s theory of Forms (Kraut). Another difference between the pre-Socratic tradition and Socratic philosophy is approach. Pre-Socratic thinkers did not have a specific approach to philosophy. Initially, they were more concerned with subject matter rather than method (Soccio 63). On the contrary, Socrates is recognized for his approach or method. It was Socrates who started the process of cross-examination or elenchus; this is popularly known as the Socratic Method (King 23). This process does not impart knowledge; it includes a system of questions which soon reveal what a person really knows. Plato followed this method, as most of his works were dialogues which feature Socrates (King 24). Just like Socrates, Plato believes that knowledge is not acquired, but simply recollected (King 24). The pre-Socratic thinkers and the Socratics also share similarities. For instance, how do these people count as philosophers? The answer is the same for both. They are philosophers because they were dedicated to seek the answers for questions about nature, the world or life in general. A philosopher is not distinguished for his wisdom; rather, he is defined by his love for it (Soccio 63). A philosopher is a thinker who seeks out the truth; he devotes his energy in investigations and observations which would bring him closer to the truth. Pre-Socratic thinkers, Socrates and the other Socratics are similar in this account, as they all love wisdom and inquire about the truth. Another similarity between the pre-Socratic thinkers and the Socratics is rational discourse. All these thinkers support their arguments with reason. Rational discourse necessitates the use of reason in establishing views on reality so that it could be properly verified (Soccio 65). It is a fact that Socrates had a monumental influence on philosophy. However, that does not mean that pre-Socratics have a lesser role in the development of philosophy. The role of Socrates in the history of philosophy is just as important as the thinkers that came before him. Between the pre-Socratic tradition and the Socratic approach, there are more differences than similarities. Regardless, both of these have made remarkable contributions to philosophy in general.

Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization Theory The social disorganisation theory was one of the most important criminological theories developed from the Chicago School of thought, namely research conducted by Shaw and Mckay (1942). Shaw and McKay (1942) used spatial maps to study the residential locations of juveniles referred to Chicago courts, they discovered that rates of crime were not equally dispersed. Instead, crime was concentrated in certain areas and interestingly remained stable in such areas despite the changes of the individuals who lived there. Unlike other theories of delinquency, The Social Disorganisation Theory suggested that where an individual lived was more instrumental in determining the likelihood that an individual will become involved in criminal activities than individual characteristics such as age and gender. The theory was not intended to be applicable to all types of crimes but mainly to street crimes at neighbourhood level. The Social disorganization theory directly linked high crime rates to neigh bourhood ecological characteristics such as poverty, residential mobility, family disruption and racial heterogeneity (Gaines and Miller, 2011). All of which will be discussed in more detail throughout this essay. The first core element of the social disorganization theory to be discussed is Poverty, which can be defined as the state of being extremely poor. Such a lack of wealth is often seen to be due to the lack of employment opportunities. Such incentives like the Princes Trust and Catch 22 focus on poorer areas of society and seek to increase the employment opportunities for young people there. Jenson (2003) found that when employment opportunities increase pressures on residents to flee decrease ensuring more stable and improved communities. However it is when employment opportunities remain low that economic deprivation grows which could lead to social disorganization, which in turn leads to crime (Shaw and McKay, 1942). Other theories such as The Strain Theory (Merton, 1957) support the impact that poverty can have on a communities crime rates as due to lack of employment opportunities people turn to other methods of fulfilling their financial and material needs in an anti social way i f this cannot be done pro-socially such as through employment. Racial Heterogeneity is the second element of the social disorganisation theory to be reveiwed; this notion is related to the diverseness of races within a society. The social disorganization theory proposes that crime occurs when the methods of social control are weakened (Sun, Triplett and Gainey, 2004). Interestingly it is racial heterogeneity and urbanization that are predicted to weaken the control of individuals to most, due to lack of communication and interaction among residents (Sun, Triplett and Gainey, 2004). It is the lack of knowledge that allows for the racial separation along with the media often using particular races as scapegoats for certain crimes almost creating a moral panic within the communities singling out a certain race which would then increase the likelihood of their engagement in criminal activity (Bowling, 2002). This is supported by the findings that even among poorer neighborhoods, some racially diverse and others racially homogeneous, local friendship s lower certain crime rates such as assault (Sun, Triplett and Gainey, 2004). The third element of the social disorganisation theory to be considered is residential mobility this refers to the frequency of which individuals change their residence. Residential mobility has proven to help to explain the social disorganization theory, it has successfully explained automobile theft (Rice and Smith, 2002), gang crime (Lane and Meeker, 2000) and sexual re-offending (Mustaine, Tewksbury and Stengel ,2006). Shaw and McKay (1942) also noted that socially disorganized communities tended to produce criminal traditions that could be passed to successive generations of youths, due to the lack of residential mobility; criminal subcultures developed and overrun communities. It was hard for people to re-locate for reasons such as financial and fears of leaving that community. Residential mobility and poverty were often seen as interrelating factors in research on the social disorganisation theory as they were both significant predictors of delinquency but were stronger predic tors when looked at together (Blau and Blau, 1982). The final element to be discussed is family disruption; family has proven to be leading process within the social disorganisation theory (Sun, Triplett and Gainey, 2004). Sampson (1986) suggested that social disorganization may affect youth crime in particular its effects on family structures and stability. Consistent with the previous research social disorganization may influence the level of crime through its effect on family, however other researchers found that family may be used to alleviate the damaging effects of social disorganization. Tolan, Gorman-Smith and Henry (2003) found that parenting practices somewhat mediated the correlation between disorganised community and delinquency. However this study looked at families who were not seen to be disrupted. Burfeind (1984) found that that family disruption influenced delinquency in different ways, such as: the level of attachment to the father and paternal discipline. However the majority of studies that looked at the interactio n of family disruption and social disorganisation theory focused on male offenders and did not consider female crime; something which has been steadily on the increase in todays society. Despite its early origins, social disorganization theory continues to be prominent in the study of delinquency. In fact, Kubrin and Weizer (2003) suggested that the theory may be stronger now than when it was first proposed. As suggested in this essay, social disorganization theory continues to dominate in explaining delinquency in regards to the neighbourhood characteristics such as; poverty, racial heterogeneity, family disruption and residential mobility. It could be suggested that to prevent delinquency it is important to organise communities who are disorganized for example providing youth centres, employment opportunities and empowering individuals to maintain their homes in disorganized communities. By improving neighbourhoods and making them more appealing, social controls and relationships will be strengthened. All the elements discussed within the essay have a clear impact on the social disorganisation theory and the more of which are present in a community increases the li kelihood of social disorganisation and delinquency (Shaw and McKay, 1942). However it must be noted that poverty was often found to be the strongest and most consistent predictor of crime compared to the other three core elements: racial heterogeneity, racial mobility and family disruption (Warner and Pierce, 1993).

A Journey into the Soul in Heart of Darkness Essay -- Heart Darkness e

A Journey into the Soul in Heart of Darkness A picture is an abstract idea, brought into context to form something concrete. They are made up and created to give off some sort of feeling or mood, that one can relate too. The atmosphere helps determine what kind of mood the picture will take. Any author, of either a painting or piece of literature will set the mood by using their atmosphere to enhance the theme of their creation. In Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad uses mood and atmosphere to help create a portrait called, the journey into the soul. The journey to the soul is to find one's self. Atmosphere pervades the mood or spirit. The atmosphere aids in revealing the journey to find one's soul. The setting, "took in the forest, the creek, the mud, the river-seemed to beckon with a dishonoring flourish before the sunlit face of land a treacherous appeal to the lurking death, to the hidden evil, to the profound darkness of its heart." Conrad 54 Conrad does not even mention their exact location which is very peculiar. The main river was described in the form a snake. A snake can be looked at from many points of views, mythological, biblical, literal and metaphorically. The snake represents all the twists and turns and being able to find one's inner-self is very difficult and twisted. The snake represents some of the animal imagery in the novel. Perhaps this is a sign that the jungle is something living and not just an ordinary jungle. Literature's imagery helps to show the main idea th... ...sh off against the state of the reader. While reading the novel I was able to reflect on my own journey to the soul. Any reader can reflect and realize the inevitable. The journey is not a pleasant one, it is a very difficult task, where evil lurks in the smallest of places. These places could be anywhere including the soul and the soul is one of man's most unique qualities. It determines who we are and how we treat everyone surrounding our presence. In this universe people live and die but a soul is immortal and will undertake an eternity. Works Cited Conrad, Joseph.Heart of Darkness.Bantam Books:New York,1981. Resources for the Study of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness.1998. Simon & Schuster.Webster's New World Dictionary.Macmillian:New York,1996.

Old And New Imperialism :: Imperialism History Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There were two different time periods where Imperialism occurred. The first wave of imperialism, called the 'Old' Imperialism, lasted from around 1500 - 1800. The 'New' Imperialism lasted from around 1870 - 1914. The three main differences that we will discuss today are the differences in economics, politics, and the motive behind all of this.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new and the old waves of imperialism were very much different through economics. The old economics was pretty much all about trading, they imply bought the wares brought to them by the native merchants. They didn?t have much of a money system; it was sort of a trade system. Also in old imperialism they had trade commerce on much of the coast in South America as well as Islands near Asia and England. So the wave of old imperialism was all about trading. However, the new imperialism had a different economic idea. They didn?t just want the goods of native merchants; they wanted special types of predicts. They would move into countries to get their products. Instead of having trade centers along coasts, they would set up plantations, docks, and factories in other countries. They also got as much money as they could out of people; it was all about getting money in the new imperialism unlike that of the old imperialism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new and old waves of imperialism also differed politically. In new imperialism, they wanted to dominate politically, they wanted their politics to dominate and rule everything. They wanted to dominate in order to secure their investments. Although in old imperialism the people didn?t care so much to have political power everywhere, they just wanted someone to rule them and keep trade going in the countries that they are living in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The motive in the new wave of imperialism and in the old wave of imperialism had a great difference. Old imperialism?s motives was mainly about bringing civilization to other countries, and teach them how to live. They just wanted glory, gold, and they wanted the satisfaction of thinking they did something good in Gods eyes. But the new motive is completely different. In the new wave of imperialism they wanted to take over already largely populated areas.

Genocide History Essay

When it comes to violence and murder, no excuse can be made. Acts of heartlessness can never be justified. Genocide, or mass murder, has no other purpose but to destroy a nation. Netherlands, in this case, has suffered its ordeal because of the rising tensions in Europe during the Second World War. German troops took over the Netherlands on May 10, 1940 and the people suffered for five long years. Germany took interest in invading the Netherlands because 75% of the Netherlands’ population during that time was Jews. In fact, the Nazis deported hundreds of thousands of Jews, where only 5000 people were able to reach their homes. The people left in the Netherlands had to hide, and there were 30,000 who tried to survive (Laub, 2008). The Netherlands suffered the most number of deaths during the Holocaust, and this country surely knows what genocide means for a country, be it a nation of power or a nation of helplessness. Aside from that, the Netherlands was an interest for the Germans and genocide was something they did not have second thoughts of, because the Netherlands is easy to invade considering its cultural and geographic features (Laub, 2008). To make the picture clearer, anyone who tries to escape the Netherlands will surely fail because the countries surrounding this nation are all controlled by Germany. If not, the Netherlands is surrounded by bodies of water in its Northern side. Anyone who tries to escape safely into the waters will find danger along the way, because the waters were controlled by the Germans, too. That being said, genocide was at its worst, and everyone was there to kill or get killed. Because of the unlikely behaviour of humans that time, the Dutch people learned to regain their independence. They focused on their own nation, nationality and of course, freedom. Fighting hand in hand was not too bloody, because the Netherlands thought that the Germans will outlast the situation in the sense that they may get tired of causing chaos (Julius, 2000). The Netherlands did not use blood to counterattack the power of Germany, but they had campaigns and policies to live by, which can be shown with how the butch wore orange carnation or how they designed their postage stamps with orange colours, or how they wore orange to symbolize Dutch ruling family. Some of them rushed into hiding because they did not want to sign an oath that calls for loyalty to the Germans. The Netherlands succeeded without the use of weapons. Publishing and speaking were their means of survival and resistance, which can clearly be seen with how Anne Frank spread peace, honesty and awareness on genocide, and the Holocaust in general, through her diary (Julius, 2000). However, because of too much fear of being killed from the genocide taking place in the Netherlands, the Dutch slowly forgot about the Dutch Jewry in which small oppressive situations took place. While the Dutch Jewry enjoyed the equal citizenship, they started feeling out of place in a country they considered home because the some of the real Dutch put the blame on the Jews. After all, the Germans went after the Jews for killing (Julius, 2000) Genocide took away lives, but it also took away the more important things that keep nations alive and the world peaceful, like equal rights and plain peaceful coexistence. Jews were soon banned from serving as air-raid wardens. It was not too long ago when they were asked to leave the coastal towns of the Netherlands like the Hague. Changes were too extreme to the point that the Jews were no longer welcome in civil service (Amnesty International, 2008). The evil, here, is not the Dutch. It may not even be the Germans, but it is especially not the Jews. We can not simply erase a race to give rise to a new and expectedly better one. We can not support genocide and choose who to exist in this planet. The culprit of disorder and social unrest is the desire and greed of humans, and genocide in general. Genocide has, in a way, changed the Dutch not exactly in the way they wanted because they didn’t have a choice. References Amnesty International.2008. The Netherlands: The Detention of Irregular Migrants and Asylum Seekers. Amnesty International. Retrieved August 26, 2008 from http://www. amnesty. org/en/library/asset/EUR35/002/2008/en/4c629481-482d-11dd-a377-f5461cc8d4de/eur350022008eng. pdf. Julius, A. (2000). Combating Holocaust Denial Through Law in the United Kingdom. Jewish Policy Research. Retrieved August 26, 2008 from http://www. jpr. org. uk/Reports/CS_Reports/no_3_2000/index. htm Laub, D. (2008). Holocaust Trauma Project. Genocide Studies Program, Yale University. Retrieved August 26, 2008 from http://www. yale. edu/gsp/trauma_project/index. htm